Historical Events
Historia est magistra vitae.
source: Internet
Prehistoric Era
Classical Era
The Middle Ages
Early Modern Era
Modern Era
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Age of the Earth
The Universe began 13.8 billion years ago in an event called the Big Bang. The Big Bang was not an explosion of matter in space, but the sudden appearance and expansion of space itself. The expansion has continued ever since, creating a cosmos of unimaginable vastness. The Earth is estimated to be about 4.5 billion years old. This age is determined using a variety of dating methods, including radiometric age dating of meteorite material and Earth's oldest rocks. Earth formed approximately 10 million years after the solar system began to take shape, which is around 4.54 billion years ago. This timeline reflects the processes of accretion and core formation that led to the development of our planet from the primordial material of the solar system. After oceans first formed on Earth, it didn’t take long for life to appear on the planet. How life began remains one of the great mysteries of science, but most scientists believe the first living things developed from carbon-based chemicals in water. No trace of these remains, but the animals and plants that evolved from them left numerous fossils behind.
The Prehistoric Era
The prehistoric age is the period where there is no written documentation of human civilization. Since there is no writing from the people this period is referred to as the prehistoric period in Ancient history. This time period dates back from 2.6 million years ago to 1,200 B.C. During that time stone tools were used by the people for hunting. Since there were no written notes it was very difficult to interpret the lifestyle and behaviour of the people who lived back then. The evidence of this period is found out using archaeology and excavation. Ancient History is categorized into three ages: Stone Age, Bronze Age and the Iron Age.
Paleolithic and Ice Age
The Paleolithic, or Old Stone Age, is a prehistoric period characterized by the development of early human cultures and the use of stone tools. This era spans from the first appearance of humans, approximately 2.6 million years ago, until the end of the last Ice Age around 10,000 years ago. The Ice Age, particularly the last one known as the Quaternary glaciation, corresponds with the Upper Paleolithic period, which lasted from about 40,000 to 10,000 years ago. During this time, humans made significant advancements in toolmaking and weaponry, including the creation of specialized tools for hunting and gathering. Key Features of the Paleolithic Era are: Tool Development, Human Adaptation and Cultural Practices. The Paleolithic period finally ended when the Ice Age (a period of colder global temperatures and glacial expansion) did, around 10,000 B.C.E.
Emergence of Early Humans
Modern humans have existed for about 200,000 years, but dinosaurs dominated life on Earth for nearly 200 million years. This vast span of time is called the Mesozoic Era and is divided into three distinct periods: Triassic Period, Jurassic Period and Cretaceous Period. Almost 66 million years ago, a catastrophic event occurred that wiped out more than half of life on Earth, including the dinosaurs. Most experts believe this mass extinction was caused by an enormous meteorite crashing into Earth. Such a huge impact would have created a worldwide cloud of dust and fumes, choking animals and blocking out the Sun’s light and warmth. The planet’s climate would have changed dramatically, making life impossible for many species. The first anatomically modern humans, Homo sapiens, appeared in Africa around 200,000 to 300,000 years ago. The first humans though, classified as early hominins, are believed to have emerged in Africa around 2 million years ago. This period marks the beginning of the evolutionary lineage that would eventually lead to modern humans, known as Homo sapiens. Humans originated as African apes and are related to chimps and gorillas. Around 6 million years ago, our closest ape ancestors, called hominins, began to walk on two legs. Over time, they developed bigger brains and learned to make tools and control fire. Early humans began migrating out of Africa into other regions, such as Asia, approximately between 2 million and 1.8 million years ago. They entered Europe somewhat later, around 1.5 million to 1 million years ago. The species Homo sapiens, which represents anatomically modern humans, is thought to have appeared around 300,000 years ago. Fossils from this period show characteristics similar to those of modern humans. Modern humans left Africa 120,000 years ago, beginning a journey that would take them to every inhabitable place on Earth. Sea levels were much lower than they are now. A bridge of land linked Asia and America, and the distance by sea to Australia was far shorter than it is today.
The Mesolithic Age
The Mesolithic age is the period between the Palaeolithic and Neolithic ages and is the second Stone Age. It dated approximately from 10,000 BCE to 8,000 BCE. The Mesolithic period in Europe ranges from 15,000 to 5,000 BCE. The people of this era mostly lived on hunting, fishing, and food gathering, but there was a steady development of agriculture too. The Mesolithic age shows the characteristics of both pastoral and horticultural societies. The Mesolithic age was a crucial period of advancement for human beings. Without the tools and technology, we gained during the Mesolithic age Human beings would not have animal or crop domestication. The idea of saving for the future was also a powerful human change. Because of the domestication of both plants and animals, humans had to gauge how to manipulate their environment in ways that gave an outcome they desired. The people of the Mesolithic age relied on semi-permanent settlements in the form of caves and huts. The weather of this era started to become warmer than the Palaeolithic age. Furthermore, there was development of cave paintings and ceramics during this period.
Neolithic Period
The Neolithic Age refers to a period of major development that took place in human societies around the world during prehistory. These developments included a gradual shift from hunter-gatherer societies to sedentary living, which involved the creation of large settlements containing many thousands of people. Because agriculture developed at different times in different regions of the world, there is no single date for the beginning of the Neolithic. In the Near East, agriculture was developed around 9,000 BCE, in Southeast Europe around 7,000 BCE, and later in other regions. It is generally agreed that the Neolithic Age lasted between 10,000 BC and 3,500 BC. By adopting a sedentary way of life, the Neolithic groups increased their awareness of territoriality. The Neolithic Revolution started in the Fertile Crescent. The Fertile Crescent is an area in the Middle East that resembles a quarter-moon shape. This area is known as the Cradle of Civilization as it is believed to be where agriculture, urbanization, writing, trade, science, and organized religion were first invented. The general climate in the Fertile Crescent was pretty humid, with the Tigris and Euphrates River located close by. This moisture allowed crops to be grown in this region easily. As farming took off, new agricultural technology was invented, including irrigation systems and farming tools. The Fertile Crescent was the birthplace of the Neolithic Revolution, which transformed human societies from nomadic lifestyles to settled agricultural communities, ultimately leading to the rise of early civilizations. We can see that earliest civilizations established their cultures around huge rivers that could support farming, which are Tigris and Euphrates in West Asia and the Nile in Egypt; Mesopotamia means “the land between the two rivers”, referring to the Tigris and the Euphrates in western Asia. It was here, more than 5,000 years ago, that the world’s first cities were built. The Mesopotamians invented organized religion, royalty, armies, law, and many other fundamental features of civilization as we know it. As technology developed and trade expanded after 3000 BCE, great empires also sprang up across Europe and East Asia. As these new societies took shape, many of them came into conflict with one another in competition for land and resources.
The Bronze Age
Towards the end of the Neolithic era, copper metallurgy is introduced, which marks a transition period to the Bronze Age. The Bronze Age refers to a time when bronze was the primary metal used to create tools and weapons. It occurred between the Stone Age and the Iron Age, between 3500 and 1200 B.C.E. Bronze is a mixture of copper and tin, which has a greater hardness than copper, better casting properties, and a lower melting point. Bronze could be used for making weapons, something that was not possible with copper, which is not hard enough to endure combat conditions. In time, bronze became the primary material for tools and weapons. The metal was also used to create tools and household items. The Bronze Age also saw the development of writing systems, pyramids, and ziggurats (large, raised structures used for religious purposes). Ancient Sumer, who inhabited southern Mesopotamia, may have been the first civilization to start adding tin to copper to make bronze. Humans made many technological advances during the Bronze Age, including the first writing systems and the invention of the wheel. The wheel was first invented in the Bronze Age and was used for a pottery wheel. The first forms of writing started in the Bronze Age. It is believed they started in Mesopotamia, which is mainly modern Iraq, in the form of writing called cuneiform. Also, in Egypt they used a form of writing called hieroglyphs. Around 3000 BCE, the people of Egypt created the world’s first united state. It was governed by a king known as a pharaoh, who was believed to be the representative of the gods on Earth. For 3,000 years, Egyptians wore similar white linen clothing, spoke the same language, and followed a regular cycle of work, governed by the annual flooding of the River Nile.
The Iron Age
The Iron Age started around 1200 B.C.E. in the Middle East and Southeastern Europe and can be characterized by the making/smelting of iron and steel tools. Some regions were known to have used iron during the Bronze Age prior to 1200 B.C.E., especially in the Middle East, but it was not widespread, and was still considered inferior to other metal types. The Hittites of the region that is modern-day Turkey are believed to have been the first people to make iron and steel. The Iron Age is significant to human history because it helped lead civilizations to more permanent settlements and forever revolutionized human tools, weaponry, and innovation. Iron-making technology was a major innovation, and it took thousands of years for people to figure it out. Smelting bronze wasn’t exactly easy either; to make bronze, we combine tin and copper, melting them at about 950 degrees Celsius. Early humans could do this in a pottery furnace. Iron needs a furnace that can handle 1,538 degrees Celsius—way too hot for a pottery furnace. A big advantage with iron was that we only need one metal, which is much easier to get than copper or tin. Iron smelting technology gradually spread from Anatolia and Mesopotamia across Eurasia. Several major states in the Eastern Mediterranean began to collapse around 1200 BCE, the Late Bronze Age. Egyptian, Greek, and Hittite cultures all faced a crisis. A number of different factors caused this collapse, including earthquakes, droughts, and invasion by a mysterious group known as “Sea Peoples.” The introduction of iron technology, combined with this collapse, rapidly changed the ancient world into something that began to look a lot less ancient. In the wake of ecological catastrophe and invasion, iron reshaped regional power dynamics, trade networks, natural environments, and human social orders from the Mediterranean to China. It was during this time that we saw the rise of major empires such as the Assyrians, Babylonians, Persians, and Greeks. With the collapse of the Bronze Age and the beginning of the Iron Age, there was a change in agriculture which even led to many wars and invasions. The farming tools made from iron made agriculture easier and allowed farmers to use tougher soil and grow more crops. Iron became an important part of factories and machinery and powered the onset of the industrial revolution.
The Classical Era
The Classical Era refers to the period between the first written histories, roughly 500 BC, to the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 500 AD. Over the course of this period, Greek and Latin writing skyrocketed, developing the basis for modern Western philosophy and political thought. The major religion of Christianity was also founded in this era, expanding to become the strongest religion in the West. In this way, the Classical Era was the origin of Western civilization. Greece then Rome became the dominant cultural and imperial powers in the Mediterranean region. Other parts of the world also saw a significant change from the Iron Age. In China, the belief systems of Confucianism and Legalism developed. The Qin Dynasty, for which China may have gotten its name in the West, rose to rule over much of the north of that country, while it was followed by the longer-lasting Han Dynasty. The Classical Period was a time of great change in the world. The focus of life was changing from the country to the city, many new machines were invented, people began to believe that they should be able to make life choices for themselves and that ideas, thoughts and education were important. The American and French Revolutions both took place during this period. The Church and the monarchies (Kings and Queens) both lost power and a new group of people - the middle class - began to enjoy music and art. During the Classical Period, which is known as the Age of Enlightenment in world history, schools and Universities were established, the first encyclopedias and dictionaries were published. The piano was invented and became popular. The first concert halls were also built in the Classical Period. The art and music of this time period reflect these new and exciting ideas.
Ancient Greece
The Classical Period in Greece spanned most of the 4th and 5th centuries BCE., almost 200 years; it began right around the start of the conflict with Persia and ended with the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BCE. The Classical Period is specifically the period between the Archaic and Hellenistic Periods in Ancient Greece. Classical Greece was marked by continuous conflict, artistic revolution, the birth of Greek philosophy, advancements in science and warfare, and the advent of Athenian democracy. This period produced outstanding cultural and scientific achievements. The city of Athens introduced to the world a direct Democracy political system later adopted and adjusted by western governments like Great Britain, France, and the USA a thousand years later. The logical approach centered on the concept of logos which initiated a continuous process of exploring and explaining the world. Democracy and Reason of classical Greece became the catalysts of western culture, the foundations of its advancement as demonstrated early in the subsequent Hellenistic Age, and its successor the Roman Empire that based its values on the same principles. The philosophers of Classical Greece have dominated thought for thousands of years, and have remained relevant to our day. The teachings of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle among others are reference points of countless western thinkers in the last two thousand years. Hippocrates became the “Father of modern medicine”, and the Hippocratic Oath is still used by physicians today. The literary masterpieces of Sophocles, Aeschylus, Euripides, and the comedies of Aristophanes set the basis for European theater and until today, they appear in the repertoires of great theatre ensembles. In the ancient world, Greece was not a unified country. Rather, it was made up of different territories called city-states. A city-state has the size and characteristics of a city, but acts as though it is its own country. Greek city-states created their own laws and societal structures. They even went to war against each other sometimes. Of all the ancient Greek city-states, no two were more powerful or famous than Athens and Sparta, which were both located on the Greek peninsula. Macedonia, situated in northern Greece, during the mid-fourth century BC., became a challenging and intimidating power under Philip II (r. 360/359–336 BC.). Philip’s military and political achievements paved the way for the conquests of his son, Alexander the Great (r. 336–323 BC.). Alexander the Great invaded Asia in 334 BC with 30,000 soldiers from all Greece, except for the Spartans who denied following the expedition due to religious beliefs. Before dying at the age of 33 of malarial fever, Alexander the Great had conquered the entire Persian Empire, Egypt, Mesopotamia, modern Afghanistan and some parts of India. After the death of Alexander the Great, the large Macedonian Empire that expanded from Greece to India were torn into pieces. New monarchies made their appearance in this period that is called the Hellenistic period but they did not last for long. The concept of polis had disappeared and states of larger size appeared. However, in these states that were spread in all eastern world, the Greek language remained the official language in trade, administration, and literature. The history of Ancient Greece is now entering a new stage: the Hellenistic and Roman period.
Persian Empire
The first Persian Empire, founded by Cyrus the Great around 550 B.C., became one of the largest empires in history, stretching from Europe’s Balkan Peninsula in the West to India’s Indus Valley in the East. This Iron Age dynasty, sometimes called the Achaemenid Empire, was a global hub of culture, religion, science, art and technology for more than 200 years before it fell to the invading armies of Alexander the Great. The first Persian Empire under Cyrus the Great soon became the world’s first superpower. It united under one government three important sites of early human civilization in the ancient world: Mesopotamia, Egypt’s Nile Valley and India’s Indus Valley. Cyrus the Great is immortalized in the Cyrus Cylinder, a clay cylinder inscribed in 539 B.C. with the story of how he conquered Babylon from King Nabonidus, bringing an end to the Neo-Babylonian empire. Darius the Great, the fourth king of the Achaemenid Empire, ruled over the Persian Empire when it was at its largest, stretching from The Caucasus and West Asia to what was then Macedonia (today’s Balkans), the Black Sea, Central Asia and even into Africa including parts of Libya and Egypt. He unified the empire through introducing standard currency and weights and measures; making Aramaic the official language and building roads. At its height under Darius the Great, the Persian Empire stretched from Europe’s Balkan Peninsula—in parts of what is present day Bulgaria, Romania and Ukraine—to the Indus River Valley in northwest India and south to Egypt. The Persians were the first people to establish regular routes of communication between three continents—Africa, Asia and Europe. They built many new roads and developed the world’s first postal service. The ancient Persians of the Achaemenid Empire created art in many forms, including metalwork, rock carvings, weaving and architecture. As the Persian Empire expanded to encompass other artistic centers of early civilization, a new style was formed with influences from these sources. The history of carpet weaving in Persia dates back to the nomadic tribes. The ancient Greeks prized the artistry of these hand-woven rugs—famous for their elaborate design and bright colors. Today, most Persian rugs are made of wool, silk and cotton. The ancient Persian capital city of Persepolis, situated in southern Iran, ranks among the world’s greatest archeological sites. It was named a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1979. The Achaemenid dynasty finally fell to the invading armies of Alexander the Great of Macedon in 330 B.C. Subsequent rulers sought to restore the Persian Empire to its Achaemenian boundaries, though the empire never quite regained the enormous size it had achieved under Cyrus the Great.
Ancient Rome
After Alexander’s death in 323 BC, the Hellenistic empire broke down into three competing kingdoms that continued to fight one another for territory and power. Over time, the incessant warfare weakened these kingdoms heavily, creating the opportunity for a new regional power to sweep in. This came in the shape of Rome – a small city-state in central Italy which had established itself as a Republic two centuries earlier, after its people had overthrown a tyrannical monarchy. After a series of military successes against its neighbouring rivals, Rome had become the dominant power in the Italian peninsula, and by the third century BC was challenging Carthage – the other major force in the Western Mediterranean – and the Hellenistic Kingdoms in the East. Over the next two centuries, the Roman Republic grew from strength to strength, gradually conquering territory across Europe, North Africa and the Middle East. Greek communities came under Roman rule on a piecemeal basis, and as they did, the city of Rome became flooded with Greek ideas, art and literature. Philosophical ideas that had originated in Athens were soon being discussed all over the Roman world. A form of Stoicism was adopted as the main philosophical school of the Romans, but Epicureanism was also very popular amongst the upper middle classes. Some Romans, however, preferred to draw upon and combine ideas from the various Greek schools of philosophical thought – a system of philosophy we now refer to as “eclecticism”. The most famous of the Roman Eclectics was Marcus Tullius Cicero, a lawyer-politician who rose to the highest political office in Rome. Cicero was a staunch defender of the Roman Republic. Like many other Romans, he believed that Rome’s success was built upon its mixed constitution – a form of government which combined elements of monarchy, aristocracy and democracy. The Roman consuls who were elected annually were its monarchs, the Roman Senate were its aristocracy, and the people of Rome were its democracy. According to Cicero it was the delicate system of checks and balances that existed between these three parts of the Roman government that kept the powers of individuals in check, and provided the stability upon which Rome’s military successes were forged. Cicero’s beloved Roman Republic was not, however, built to last. The demands of defending, policing and extending a large overseas empire stretched the Roman constitution to its limits, and the Roman people ended up giving more and more power to individual military commanders. In 48 BC the military general, Julius Caesar seized control of the city and installed himself as dictator, effectively bringing the Republic to an end. After his assassination in 44 BC by a group of senators, a long period of civil war ensued, and in 27 BC Caesar’s great-nephew and appointed heir, Augustus established himself as the first emperor of Rome. Under Augustus and his successors, Rome continued to expand its territory. But from the late 2nd century AD onwards, plagues, natural disasters, famines and invasions by “barbarian” tribes gradually brought the empire to its knees. In 285 AD the empire was divided into an eastern and western region which were governed separately. The western half of the empire, including Hispania, Gaul, and Italy, eventually broke into independent kingdoms in the fifth century; the eastern empire, governed from Constantinople, is referred to as the Byzantine Empire after AD 476, the traditional date for the "fall of Rome" and subsequent onset of the Middle Ages. Gradually, Rome lost its place as the capital of the empire and power shifted eastwards to the new capital of Byzantium (modern day Istanbul). During the 5th century AD, continued invasions from Germanic tribes caused the Western Empire to steadily disintegrate before finally falling in 476 AD.
Byzantine Empire
The Byzantine Empire was a vast and powerful civilization with origins that can be traced to A.D. 330, when the Roman emperor Constantine I dedicated a “New Rome” on the site of the ancient Greek colony of Byzantium. Though the western half of the Roman Empire crumbled and fell in A.D. 476, the eastern half survived for 1,000 more years, spawning a rich tradition of art, literature and learning and serving as a military buffer between Europe and Asia. The Byzantine Empire finally fell in 1453, after an Ottoman army stormed Constantinople during the reign of Constantine XI. The term “Byzantine” derives from Byzantium, an ancient Greek colony founded by a man named Byzas. Located on the European side of the Bosporus (the strait linking the Black Sea to the Mediterranean), the site of Byzantium was ideally located to serve as a transit and trade point between Europe and Asia. In A.D. 330, Roman Emperor Constantine I chose Byzantium as the site of a “New Rome” with an eponymous capital city, Constantinople. The Eastern Roman Empire, variously known as the Byzantine Empire or Byzantium, was able to survive for centuries after the fall of Rome. Though Byzantium was ruled by Roman law and Roman political institutions, and its official language was Latin, Greek was also widely spoken, and students received education in Greek history, literature and culture. On May 29, 1453, after an Ottoman army stormed Constantinople, Mehmed triumphantly entered the Hagia Sophia, which would soon be converted to the city’s leading mosque. The fall of Constantinople marked the end of a glorious era for the Byzantine Empire. Emperor Constantine XI died in battle that day, and the Byzantine Empire collapsed, ushering in the long reign of the Ottoman Empire.
The Middle Ages
The Middle Ages is also known as the Medieval or Post-Classical era. Historians refer to the early part of this period as the Dark Ages due to the loss of recorded history after the fall of the Roman Empire in A.D. 476.
The Middle Ages form the middle period in a traditional division of European history into three "epochs": the classical civilization of antiquity, the Middle Ages, and the modern era. The period of the Middle Ages is usually dated from the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the fifth century to the beginning of the Renaissance in the fifteenth century. People use the phrase “Middle Ages” to describe Europe between the fall of Rome in 476 CE and the beginning of the Renaissance in the 14th century. The phrase “Middle Ages” tells us more about the Renaissance that followed it than it does about the era itself. Starting around the 14th century, European thinkers, writers and artists began to look back and celebrate the art and culture of ancient Greece and Rome. Accordingly, they dismissed the period after the fall of Rome as a “Middle” or even “Dark” age in which no scientific accomplishments had been made, no great art produced, no great leaders born.
The Middle Ages span roughly 1,000 years, ending between 1400 and 1450. In Spain, however, 1492 is considered the end of their medieval period and the beginning of the modern era. The period was one of human expansion, centralization and great political upheaval and violence, resulting in the foundation of many modern European countries. It was also dominated by a surge in Christianity leading to the building of great cathedrals, clearing of large tracts of land by peasants, settling of new towns and villages, and building of great castles by local nobility.
Early Middle Ages
The end of the eighth century found the former western Roman empire an overwhelmingly rural and decentralized region that had lost its privileged position as the centre of a great power. Between the fifth and eighth centuries, new peoples and powerful individuals filled the political void left by Roman centralized government. Elite families from both Roman aristocracy and barbarian nobility established regional hegemonies within the former boundaries of the Empire, creating weak kingdoms like that of the Ostrogoths in Italy, the Visigoths in Spain and Portugal, the Franks and Burgundians in Gaul and western Germany, and Saxons in England. The social effects of the fracture of the Roman state were manifold. Cities and merchants lost the economic benefits of safe conditions for trade and manufacture, and intellectual development suffered from the loss of a unified cultural and educational milieu of far-ranging connections. The breakdown of Roman society was often dramatic. As it became unsafe to travel or carry goods over any distance, there was a collapse in trade and manufacture for export. The major industries that depended on long-distance trade, such as large-scale pottery manufacture, vanished almost overnight in places like Britain. The Muslim conquests of the seventh and eighth centuries, which included the Persian Empire, Roman Syria, Roman Egypt, Roman North Africa, Visigothic Spain and Portugal, and other parts of the Mediterranean, including Sicily and southern Italy, increased localization by halting much of what remained of seaborne commerce. Thus, whereas sites like Tintagel in Cornwall had managed to obtain supplies of Mediterranean luxury goods well into the sixth century, this connection was now lost. The patchwork of petty rulers was incapable of supporting the depth of civic infrastructure required to maintain libraries, public baths, arenas and major educational institutions. Any new building was on a far smaller scale than before. Roman landholders beyond the confines of city walls were also vulnerable to extreme changes, and they could not simply pack up their land and move elsewhere. Some were dispossessed and fled to Byzantine regions, others quickly pledged their allegiances to their new rulers. In areas like Spain and Italy, this often meant little more than acknowledging a new overlord, while Roman forms of law and religion could be maintained. In other areas where there was a greater weight of population movement, it might be necessary to adopt new modes of dress, language and custom. The Catholic Church was the major unifying cultural influence, preserving Latin learning and the art of writing, and maintaining a centralized administration through its network of bishops. Some regions that had previously been Catholic were occupied by Arian Christians, which raised debates over orthodoxy. Clovis I of the Franks is a well-known example of a barbarian king who chose Catholic orthodoxy over Arianism. His conversion marked a turning point for the Frankish tribes of Gaul. Bishops were central to Middle Age society due to the literacy they possessed. As a result, they often played a significant role in shaping good government. However beyond the core areas of Western Europe there remained many peoples with little or no contact with Christianity or with classical Roman culture. Martial societies such as the Avars and the Vikings were still capable of causing major disruption to the newly emerging societies of Western Europe.
High Middle Ages
The High Middle Ages were characterized by the urbanization of Europe, military expansion, and an intellectual revival that historians identify between the 11th century and the end of the 13th. This revival was aided by the cessation of invasions by Scandinavians and Hungarians, as well as the assertion of power by castellans to fill the power vacuum left by the Carolingian decline. The High Middle Ages saw an explosion in population. This population flowed into towns, sought conquests abroad, or cleared land for cultivation. The cities of antiquity had been clustered around the Mediterranean. By 1200 the growing urban areas were in the centre of the continent, connected by roads or rivers. By the end of this period Paris might have had as many as 200,000 inhabitants. In central and northern Italy and in Flanders the rise of towns that were self-governing to some degree within their territories stimulated the economy and created an environment for new types of religious and trade associations. Trading cities on the shores of the Baltic entered into agreements known as the Hanseatic League, and Italian city-states such as Venice, Genoa, and Pisa expanded their trade throughout the Mediterranean. This period marks a formative one in the history of the western state as we know it, for kings in France, England, and Spain consolidated their power during this time period, setting up lasting institutions to help them govern. The Papacy, which had long since created an ideology of independence from the secular kings, first asserted its claims to temporal authority over the entire Christian world. The entity that historians call the Papal Monarchy reached its apogee in the early 13th century under the pontificate of Innocent III. Northern Crusades and the advance of Christian kingdoms and military orders into previously pagan regions in the Baltic and Finnic northeast brought the forced assimilation of numerous native peoples to the European entity. With the brief exception of the Mongol invasions, major barbarian incursions ceased.
Late Middle Ages
The Late Middle Ages was a period initiated by calamities and upheavals. During this time, agriculture was affected by a climate change that has been documented by climate historians, and was felt by contemporaries in the form of periodic famines, including the Great Famine of 1315-1317. The Black Death, a bacterial disease introduced from Southeast Asia by travelers arriving in Europe via the Silk Road, that spread among the malnourished populace like wildfire, killed as much as a third of the population in the mid-fourteenth century, in some regions the toll was as high as one half of the population. Towns were especially hard-hit because of the crowded conditions. Large areas of land were left sparsely inhabited, and in some places fields were left unworked. As a consequence of the sudden decline in available laborers, the price of wages rose as landlords sought to entice workers to their fields. Workers also felt that they had a right to greater earnings, and popular uprisings broke out across Europe. This period of stress, paradoxically, witnessed creative social, economic, and technological responses that laid the groundwork for further great changes in the Early Modern Period. It was also a period when the Catholic Church was increasingly divided against itself. During the time of the Western Schism, the Church was led by as many as three popes at one time. The divisiveness of the Church undermined papal authority, and allowed the formation of national churches. The Fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks in 1453 had a great effect upon the European economy and intellectual life.
The Catholic Church
After the fall of Rome, no single state or government united the people who lived on the European continent. Instead, the Catholic Church became the most powerful institution of the medieval period. Kings, queens and other leaders derived much of their power from their alliances with and protection of the Church. In 800 CE, for example, Pope Leo III named the Frankish king Charlemagne the “Emperor of the Romans”–the first since that empire’s fall more than 300 years before. Over time, Charlemagne’s realm became the Holy Roman Empire, one of several political entities in Europe whose interests tended to align with those of the Church. Ordinary people across Europe had to “tithe” 10 percent of their earnings each year to the Church; at the same time, the Church was mostly exempt from taxation. These policies helped it to amass a great deal of money and power.
The Rise of Islam
Meanwhile, the Islamic world was growing larger and more powerful. After the prophet Muhammad’s death in 632 CE, Muslim armies conquered large parts of the Middle East, uniting them under the rule of a single caliph. At its height, the medieval Islamic world was more than three times bigger than all of Christendom. Under the caliphs, great cities such as Cairo, Baghdad and Damascus fostered a vibrant intellectual and cultural life. Poets, scientists and philosophers wrote thousands of books (on paper, a Chinese invention that had made its way into the Islamic world by the 8th century). Scholars translated Greek, Iranian and Indian texts into Arabic. Inventors devised technologies like the pinhole camera, soap, windmills, surgical instruments, and an early flying machine. And religious scholars and mystics translated, interpreted and taught the Quran and other scriptural texts to people across the Middle East.
Boethius writes The Consolation of Philosophy
Anicius Manlius Severinus Boëthius, a Roman senator and philosopher, finds himself imprisoned by King Theodoric the Great on charges of conspiracy. During his imprisonment, Boethius wrote The Consolation of Philosophy, a philosophical treatise that explores profound questions about fortune, happiness, fate, and the nature of good and evil. The work is presented as a dialogue between Boethius and Lady Philosophy, who consoles him and provides wisdom on enduring hardships. It would become one of the most influential works of the Middle Ages, blending classical philosophy with Christian theology.
The Anno Domini calendar is invented
Dionysius Exiguus, a monk and theologian from present-day Romania, creates the Anno Domini (AD) dating system while calculating the dates of Easter. He sets the starting point of this calendar at the birth of Jesus Christ, aiming to move away from the Diocletian era named after a Roman emperor who persecuted Christians. Although later research suggests that Dionysius miscalculated the exact year of Christ’s birth, the Anno Domini calendar gradually gained acceptance. It became widely used in ecclesiastical contexts and eventually became the predominant method of numbering years in Western civilization.
Code of Justinian Issued
Emperor Justinian I of the Byzantine Empire commissions a comprehensive codification of existing Roman laws, resulting in the Corpus Juris Civilis, or Code of Justinian. It is a pivotal achievement in the history of law, preserving Roman legal principles and influencing the development of legal systems in Europe and beyond. Its rediscovery in the West during the Middle Ages sparks a renewed interest in Roman law, shaping the foundations of civil law traditions. The enduring legacy of Justinian’s Code is evident in modern legal codes and systems that draw upon its principles.
Plague of Justinian
The Plague of Justinian, also named after the Byzantine Emperor Justinian I, emerged as one of the first recorded pandemics in history. The outbreak is caused by the Yersinia pestis bacterium, the same pathogen responsible for the later Black Death. Causing an estimated 25 million deaths in the Mediterranean and Middle East, this event had profound effects on the population and economy of the affected regions.
Gregory the Great Becomes Pope
Gregorius Anicius, better known as Gregory the Great, ascends to the papacy in 590, becoming Pope Gregory I. His papacy, lasting until 604, is marked by significant administrative and spiritual reforms that strengthened the role of the Papacy and the Roman Catholic Church. Gregory is credited with organizing the Church’s liturgical practices, including the development of Gregorian Chant, which became a cornerstone of medieval music. Gregory’s writings, including his Dialogues and Pastoral Care, provided guidance to bishops and clergy, influencing Christian thought and pastoral practice for centuries.
Hijra
In 622 AD, the Hegira, or Hijra, marks a pivotal moment in Islamic history. The Prophet Muhammad and his followers migrated from Mecca to Medina, fleeing persecution and establishing a new community based on Islamic principles. This migration signifies the beginning of the Islamic calendar and represents a crucial turning point in the rise of Islam. In Medina, Muhammad established a political and religious community that unified the various tribes under the banner of Islam. It remains a fundamental historical and spiritual milestone in the Islamic world, symbolizing the transition from a phase of struggle to a period of growth and consolidation.
Islamic Conquest of Persia
The Islamic conquest of Persia, completed in 651 AD, marks the end of the Sassanian Empire and the expansion of the Islamic Caliphate. After two decades of conflict, the Battle of al-Qadisiyyah (636) and the subsequent campaigns lead to the fall of the Sassanian capital, Ctesiphon. This conquest is a landmark event in the history of the Islamic world, as it significantly extended the territories under Muslim control and integrated Persian lands into the Caliphate. The conquest led to the establishment of new administrative practices, the integration of Persian bureaucratic traditions, and the promotion of Islamic scholarship and culture. The transformation of Persia under Islamic rule sets the stage for future developments in the region, including the rise of the Abbasid Caliphate and the flourishing of Persian intellectual and cultural life.
Buddhism Becomes the State Religion of China
In 691 AD, Empress Wu Zetian of the Tang Dynasty officially recognizes Buddhism as the state religion of China. This decision marks a significant shift in the religious landscape of China, as Buddhism, which had been introduced centuries earlier, now receives imperial endorsement and support. Empress Wu’s patronage leads to the establishment of Buddhist institutions and the construction of numerous temples and monasteries throughout the empire. This period was a renaissance in Buddhist scholarship, with the translation of important scriptures and the promotion of Buddhist teachings. The state endorsement of Buddhism helped to institutionalize the religion, leading to its widespread adoption and integration into Chinese culture and society. The influence of Buddhism during this era extends beyond religious practices to impact Chinese philosophy, art, and politics. This development strengthens Buddhism’s role in shaping the spiritual and cultural identity of China for future generations.
Vikings Raid Lindisfarne
In 793, Norse Viking raiders launched an attack on the monastery of Lindisfarne, which is located off the northeast coast of England. This attack symbolizes the start of a series of Viking incursions into the British Isles and Western Europe. These piratical raids eventually led to Norse expansion and the establishment of Viking kingdoms beyond Scandinavia.
Treaty of Verdun
The Treaty of Verdun, signed in 843 AD, is a historic agreement that divides the Carolingian Empire among the three grandsons of Charlemagne: Charles the Bald, Louis the German, and Lothair I. The treaty is a response to internal conflicts and power struggles following Charlemagne’s death, aiming to restore peace and stability among the heirs. Under the terms of the treaty, the empire is divided into three distinct kingdoms: West Francia, East Francia, and Lotharingia. This division marks the beginning of the political formation of France and Germany, laying the groundwork for the future development of these nation-states. The Treaty of Verdun is a seminal moment in medieval European history, as it sets the stage for the evolution of political boundaries and the formation of national identities in Western Europe.
Rurik Dynasty in Russia
In 862, Rurik, a Varangian chieftain, established the Rurik Dynasty in the region of Rus’, a foundational moment in the history of Eastern Europe. According to the Primary Chronicle, Rurik is invited by local tribes to rule over them and bring stability to the region. Rurik’s establishment of the dynasty marks the beginning of a centralized rule over the East Slavic lands. His successors expanded the territory, setting the stage for the future formation of the Kievan Rus’ state. The influence of the Rurik Dynasty extends throughout the medieval period, shaping the foundations of Russian statehood and influencing the historical development of the region for centuries to come.
Foundation of Normandy
In 911, a historic agreement between Charles the Simple, King of West Francia, and the Viking leader Rollo establishes the Duchy of Normandy. This treaty, known as the Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte, grants Rollo and his followers control over the region in exchange for their allegiance to the French king and a commitment to defend the kingdom against other Viking raiders. The foundation of Normandy marks a turning point in European history, as it integrates Norse settlers into the political and cultural fabric of France. Rollo’s descendants, known as the Normans, went on to play a major role in European affairs over the next two centuries, including with England, Italy and the Byzantine Empire.
First Use of Gunpowder
The Battle of Langshan Jiang, fought in 919, witnessed the first recorded use of gunpowder as a weapon of war. With the help of firethrowing devices, the forces from the state of Wuyue burned down 400 enemy ships along the Yangtze River. The use of gunpowder weaponry would expand across China, and eventually into other parts of the world, fundamentally changing the way warfare was conducted.
Foundation of Cairo
The Fatimid Caliphate established the city of Cairo in 969, which became a major center of Islamic culture and politics. Founded by the Fatimid general Jawhar al-Siqili, Cairo is initially named al-Qāhirah, meaning “The Victorious.” The city is strategically located along the Nile River, which supports its growth as a vital hub of trade, learning, and administration. Cairo would soon be one of the largest cities in the world, and today remains the capital of Egypt.
Song Dynasty Reunites China
In 979, the Song Dynasty completed the reunification of China under its rule, ending a period of fragmentation following the fall of the Tang Dynasty. The Song Dynasty, founded by Zhao Kuangyin (Emperor Taizu), brought an era of consolidation, reform, and cultural advancement. The dynasty is characterized by a focus on bureaucratic governance, economic development, and technological innovation. This new dynasty would rule the Middle Kingdom for more than 300 years, a period that the region’s population expanded greatly.
Avicenna Writes the Canon of Medicine
The Persian philosopher and physician Avicenna, also known as Ibn Sīnā, completed his seminal work The Canon of Medicine in 1025. This comprehensive medical encyclopedia integrates Greek, Roman, and Islamic medical knowledge, presenting a systematic approach to understanding human health and disease. The Canon of Medicine covers a wide range of topics, including anatomy, physiology, diagnosis, and treatment of diseases, and remained the authoritative medical text in both the Islamic world and Europe for centuries.
Great Schism
An official break between the Roman Catholic Church and Eastern Orthodox churches, which lasts to the present day. The mutual excommunications issued by Pope Leo IX and Patriarch Michael I Cerularius crystallized the division, creating two distinct branches of Christianity. This schism was the result of long-standing theological and political differences and had a profound impact on the Christian world.
Norman Conquest of England
The Norman Conquest of England reached its climax with the Battle of Hastings, fought on October 14, 1066. With William’s victory and his subsequent coronation as King William I of England, Norman rule brought significant changes in the political, cultural, and social landscape of England.
The First Crusade Launched
At the Council of Clermont, Pope Urban II calls upon Christians to undertake a military expedition in support of the Byzantine Empire against the Seljuk Turks. It would lead to the conquest of Jerusalem four years later and a concerted effort by Western Europeans to take control of the Near East. The First Crusade initiated a prolonged period of conflict and interaction between Christians and Muslims. The Crusade’s legacy includes the establishment of military orders, the spread of new ideas and technologies, and a lasting impact on the religious and political dynamics of the region.
Gothic Buildings Emerge
Around 1135 AD, the Gothic architectural style begins to emerge in France, starting with the renovation of the Basilica of Saint-Denis by Abbot Suger. This new style, characterized by pointed arches, ribbed vaults, and flying buttresses, represents a significant shift from the earlier Romanesque architectural tradition. Gothic architecture allows for taller and more expansive structures, with an emphasis on verticality and light. The style’s innovations enabled the creation of grand cathedrals and churches, marked by soaring spires, intricate stained glass windows, and intricate stonework. The Gothic architectural movement spread across Europe, influencing the design of many of the continent’s most iconic medieval buildings, including Notre-Dame de Paris and Chartres Cathedral. The Gothic era sees the construction of some of the most celebrated examples of medieval architecture, reflecting the era’s religious devotion and artistic achievement. The style’s emphasis on height and light transformed the architectural landscape of medieval Europe.
Chinggis Khan Becomes Ruler of the Mongols
In 1206, Temüjin was declared Chinggis Khan (also known as Genghis Khan), the ruler of the Mongol tribes, marking the beginning of a transformative era in Asian and European history. Under Chinggis’ leadership, the Mongol Empire rapidly expanded through a series of military conquests that established the largest contiguous state in history.
Siege of Baghdad
A Mongol army, under the command of Hulagu Khan, captured Baghdad, bringing to an end the Abbasid Caliphate. In its place, a new empire known as the Ilkhanate would rule over much of present-day Iraq, Iran and other parts of the Middle East. The city of Baghdad, once one of the richest and most powerful places in the medieval world, was greatly reduced.
Thomas Aquinas Begins His Summa Theologiae
This Dominican friar did not complete this massive work before he died in 1274, but the text has become one of the most important works on Christian theology. The Summa Theologiae addresses questions such as the nature of God, the role of reason in faith, and the moral teachings of Christianity. It shaped the intellectual discourse of the Middle Ages and remains a key reference in theological studies.
Siege of Acre
The last major Crusader stronghold in the Near East, Acre, was besieged and captured by the Mamluks in 1291. This event is often seen as the end of the Crusades, a series of religious and military campaigns initiated by the Latin Church to reclaim the Holy Land from Muslim rule. The fall of Acre marked the conclusion of nearly two centuries of conflict and the beginning of a new era in the Eastern Mediterranean, characterized by Mamluk dominance and the decline of European influence in the region.
Great Famine
A series of crop failures and adverse weather conditions struck large parts of Europe, leading to the Great Famine of 1315-1317. This catastrophic event caused widespread hunger and death, significantly impacting the population and economy of medieval Europe. The famine led to social unrest, increased mortality rates, and long-term demographic changes.
Dante Alighieri completes the Divine Comedy
Dante Alighieri, an Italian poet, completed his epic poem, the Divine Comedy, in 1320. Considered one of the greatest works in literary history, the Divine Comedy is an allegorical journey through Hell, Purgatory, and Paradise. Written in vernacular Italian, it played a crucial role in establishing Italian as a literary language. Dante’s vivid imagery and exploration of themes such as justice, redemption, and the human condition have had a profound influence on literature, art, and theology.
Pilgrimage to Mecca by Mansa Musa
Musa I, ruler of the Mali Empire, embarked on a pilgrimage to Mecca in 1324, bringing with him a vast entourage and immense wealth. His pilgrimage showcased the prosperity and influence of the Mali Empire and had significant economic consequences for the regions he travelled through. Musa’s journey also enhanced cultural and intellectual exchanges between Mali and the broader Islamic world.
Beginning of the Hundred Years’ War
The Hundred Years’ War, a protracted conflict between the Kingdoms of England and France, began in 1337. Spanning over a century, the war was characterized by a series of battles, truces, and intermittent peace. It was driven by territorial disputes, claims to the French throne, and economic rivalries. The war had profound effects on both countries, leading to political, social, and military transformations.
Black Death
The Black Death, one of the most devastating pandemics in human history, swept through Eurasia between 1347 and 1351. It is estimated to have killed as many as 200 million people, significantly reducing the population of Europe and Asia. The pandemic caused profound social, economic, and cultural upheavals. It led to labour shortages, economic decline, and changes in agricultural practices. The Black Death also had a lasting impact on art, religion, and society, influencing the course of European history.
Ming Dynasty overthrows Yuan
In 1368, the Ming Dynasty overthrew the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty, establishing a new era of Chinese rule. The Ming Dynasty would govern China until 1644, a period marked by economic prosperity, population growth, and cultural achievements. The Ming rulers restored Chinese traditions and promoted Confucian values, leading to a revival of Chinese arts, literature, and philosophy. The construction of the Great Wall and the voyages of Zheng He are notable accomplishments of this period.
Western Schism begins
The Western Schism, a split within the Catholic Church, began in 1378 when two, and later three, men simultaneously claimed to be the true pope. This division weakened the authority of the Papacy and led to political and religious conflicts across Europe. The schism persisted until 1417, when the Council of Constance resolved the issue by electing a new pope. The Western Schism highlighted the need for church reform and contributed to the growing discontent that would later culminate in the Protestant Reformation.
Kalmar Union established
The Kalmar Union, a political union of the kingdoms of Sweden, Denmark, and Norway, was established in 1397 by Queen Margaret I. The union aimed to create a unified and powerful Scandinavian state capable of resisting external threats. While it achieved some degree of political stability and cooperation, internal conflicts and regional differences ultimately led to its dissolution in the early 16th century. The Kalmar Union played a significant role in shaping the political landscape of Northern Europe.
Competition for the Florence Baptistery
In 1401, a competition was held in Florence to design the doors of the Baptistery of San Giovanni. The competition, won by Lorenzo Ghiberti, is seen as a key moment in the beginning of the Renaissance. Ghiberti’s innovative design and use of perspective and classical themes marked a departure from medieval artistic conventions. This event signalled a renewed interest in classical antiquity and the humanistic values that would define the Renaissance.
Gutenberg invents printing press
Johannes Gutenberg, a German blacksmith and inventor, developed the first European movable type printing press around 1439. This invention revolutionized the production of books and the spread of information, making literature more accessible and affordable. The printing press played a crucial role in the dissemination of knowledge, the advancement of education, and the spread of Renaissance and Reformation ideas. Gutenberg’s press is considered one of the most important inventions in human history.
Siege of Constantinople
In 1453, Sultan Mehmed II of the Ottoman Empire conquered Constantinople, the capital of the Byzantine Empire. This event marked the end of the Byzantine Empire and the rise of the Ottomans as a major international power. The fall of Constantinople had profound effects on trade, culture, and politics in the region. It also prompted European exploration and the search for new trade routes, contributing to the Age of Exploration.
Columbus sails to the Americas
In 1492, Christopher Columbus, an Italian explorer sponsored by the Spanish monarchy, set sail westward across the Atlantic Ocean in search of a new route to Asia. Instead, he landed in the Caribbean, marking the beginning of European exploration and colonization of the Americas. Columbus’s voyages had profound and far-reaching effects, leading to the exchange of goods, cultures, and ideas between the Old and New Worlds and the eventual establishment of European colonies in the Americas.
Early Modern Era
Description for Early Modern Era
Modern Era
Description for Modern Era