Historical Events
Historia est magistra vitae.
Age of the Earth
The Universe began 13.8 billion years ago in an event called the Big Bang. The Big Bang was not an explosion of matter in space, but the sudden appearance and expansion of space itself. The expansion has continued ever since, creating a cosmos of unimaginable vastness. The Earth is estimated to be about 4.5 billion years old. This age is determined using a variety of dating methods, including radiometric age dating of meteorite material and Earth's oldest rocks. Earth formed approximately 10 million years after the solar system began to take shape, which is around 4.54 billion years ago. This timeline reflects the processes of accretion and core formation that led to the development of our planet from the primordial material of the solar system. After oceans first formed on Earth, it didn’t take long for life to appear on the planet. How life began remains one of the great mysteries of science, but most scientists believe the first living things developed from carbon-based chemicals in water. No trace of these remains, but the animals and plants that evolved from them left numerous fossils behind.
The Prehistoric Era
The prehistoric age is the period where there is no written documentation of human civilization. Since there is no writing from the people this period is referred to as the prehistoric period in Ancient history. This time period dates back from 2.6 million years ago to 1,200 B.C. During that time stone tools were used by the people for hunting. Since there were no written notes it was very difficult to interpret the lifestyle and behaviour of the people who lived back then. The evidence of this period is found out using archaeology and excavation. Ancient History is categorized into three ages: Stone Age, Bronze Age and the Iron Age.
Paleolithic and Ice Age
The Paleolithic, or Old Stone Age, is a prehistoric period characterized by the development of early human cultures and the use of stone tools. This era spans from the first appearance of humans, approximately 2.6 million years ago, until the end of the last Ice Age around 10,000 years ago. The Ice Age, particularly the last one known as the Quaternary glaciation, corresponds with the Upper Paleolithic period, which lasted from about 40,000 to 10,000 years ago. During this time, humans made significant advancements in toolmaking and weaponry, including the creation of specialized tools for hunting and gathering. Key Features of the Paleolithic Era are: Tool Development, Human Adaptation and Cultural Practices. The Paleolithic period finally ended when the Ice Age (a period of colder global temperatures and glacial expansion) did, around 10,000 B.C.E.
Emergence of Early Humans
Modern humans have existed for about 200,000 years, but dinosaurs dominated life on Earth for nearly 200 million years. This vast span of time is called the Mesozoic Era and is divided into three distinct periods: Triassic Period, Jurassic Period and Cretaceous Period. Almost 66 million years ago, a catastrophic event occurred that wiped out more than half of life on Earth, including the dinosaurs. Most experts believe this mass extinction was caused by an enormous meteorite crashing into Earth. Such a huge impact would have created a worldwide cloud of dust and fumes, choking animals and blocking out the Sun’s light and warmth. The planet’s climate would have changed dramatically, making life impossible for many species. The first anatomically modern humans, Homo sapiens, appeared in Africa around 200,000 to 300,000 years ago. The first humans though, classified as early hominins, are believed to have emerged in Africa around 2 million years ago. This period marks the beginning of the evolutionary lineage that would eventually lead to modern humans, known as Homo sapiens. Humans originated as African apes and are related to chimps and gorillas. Around 6 million years ago, our closest ape ancestors, called hominins, began to walk on two legs. Over time, they developed bigger brains and learned to make tools and control fire. Early humans began migrating out of Africa into other regions, such as Asia, approximately between 2 million and 1.8 million years ago. They entered Europe somewhat later, around 1.5 million to 1 million years ago. The species Homo sapiens, which represents anatomically modern humans, is thought to have appeared around 300,000 years ago. Fossils from this period show characteristics similar to those of modern humans. Modern humans left Africa 120,000 years ago, beginning a journey that would take them to every inhabitable place on Earth. Sea levels were much lower than they are now. A bridge of land linked Asia and America, and the distance by sea to Australia was far shorter than it is today.
The Mesolithic Age
The Mesolithic age is the period between the Palaeolithic and Neolithic ages and is the second Stone Age. It dated approximately from 10,000 BCE to 8,000 BCE. The Mesolithic period in Europe ranges from 15,000 to 5,000 BCE. The people of this era mostly lived on hunting, fishing, and food gathering, but there was a steady development of agriculture too. The Mesolithic age shows the characteristics of both pastoral and horticultural societies. The Mesolithic age was a crucial period of advancement for human beings. Without the tools and technology, we gained during the Mesolithic age Human beings would not have animal or crop domestication. The idea of saving for the future was also a powerful human change. Because of the domestication of both plants and animals, humans had to gauge how to manipulate their environment in ways that gave an outcome they desired. The people of the Mesolithic age relied on semi-permanent settlements in the form of caves and huts. The weather of this era started to become warmer than the Palaeolithic age. Furthermore, there was development of cave paintings and ceramics during this period.
Neolithic Period
The Neolithic Age refers to a period of major development that took place in human societies around the world during prehistory. These developments included a gradual shift from hunter-gatherer societies to sedentary living, which involved the creation of large settlements containing many thousands of people. Because agriculture developed at different times in different regions of the world, there is no single date for the beginning of the Neolithic. In the Near East, agriculture was developed around 9,000 BCE, in Southeast Europe around 7,000 BCE, and later in other regions. It is generally agreed that the Neolithic Age lasted between 10,000 BC and 3,500 BC. By adopting a sedentary way of life, the Neolithic groups increased their awareness of territoriality. The Neolithic Revolution started in the Fertile Crescent. The Fertile Crescent is an area in the Middle East that resembles a quarter-moon shape. This area is known as the Cradle of Civilization as it is believed to be where agriculture, urbanization, writing, trade, science, and organized religion were first invented. The general climate in the Fertile Crescent was pretty humid, with the Tigris and Euphrates River located close by. This moisture allowed crops to be grown in this region easily. As farming took off, new agricultural technology was invented, including irrigation systems and farming tools. The Fertile Crescent was the birthplace of the Neolithic Revolution, which transformed human societies from nomadic lifestyles to settled agricultural communities, ultimately leading to the rise of early civilizations. We can see that earliest civilizations established their cultures around huge rivers that could support farming, which are Tigris and Euphrates in West Asia and the Nile in Egypt; Mesopotamia means “the land between the two rivers”, referring to the Tigris and the Euphrates in western Asia. It was here, more than 5,000 years ago, that the world’s first cities were built. The Mesopotamians invented organized religion, royalty, armies, law, and many other fundamental features of civilization as we know it. As technology developed and trade expanded after 3000 BCE, great empires also sprang up across Europe and East Asia. As these new societies took shape, many of them came into conflict with one another in competition for land and resources.
The Bronze Age
Towards the end of the Neolithic era, copper metallurgy is introduced, which marks a transition period to the Bronze Age. The Bronze Age refers to a time when bronze was the primary metal used to create tools and weapons. It occurred between the Stone Age and the Iron Age, between 3500 and 1200 B.C.E. Bronze is a mixture of copper and tin, which has a greater hardness than copper, better casting properties, and a lower melting point. Bronze could be used for making weapons, something that was not possible with copper, which is not hard enough to endure combat conditions. In time, bronze became the primary material for tools and weapons. The metal was also used to create tools and household items. The Bronze Age also saw the development of writing systems, pyramids, and ziggurats (large, raised structures used for religious purposes). Ancient Sumer, who inhabited southern Mesopotamia, may have been the first civilization to start adding tin to copper to make bronze. Humans made many technological advances during the Bronze Age, including the first writing systems and the invention of the wheel. The wheel was first invented in the Bronze Age and was used for a pottery wheel. The first forms of writing started in the Bronze Age. It is believed they started in Mesopotamia, which is mainly modern Iraq, in the form of writing called cuneiform. Also, in Egypt they used a form of writing called hieroglyphs. Around 3000 BCE, the people of Egypt created the world’s first united state. It was governed by a king known as a pharaoh, who was believed to be the representative of the gods on Earth. For 3,000 years, Egyptians wore similar white linen clothing, spoke the same language, and followed a regular cycle of work, governed by the annual flooding of the River Nile.
The Iron Age
The Iron Age started around 1200 B.C.E. in the Middle East and Southeastern Europe and can be characterized by the making/smelting of iron and steel tools. Some regions were known to have used iron during the Bronze Age prior to 1200 B.C.E., especially in the Middle East, but it was not widespread, and was still considered inferior to other metal types. The Hittites of the region that is modern-day Turkey are believed to have been the first people to make iron and steel. The Iron Age is significant to human history because it helped lead civilizations to more permanent settlements and forever revolutionized human tools, weaponry, and innovation. Iron-making technology was a major innovation, and it took thousands of years for people to figure it out. Smelting bronze wasn’t exactly easy either; to make bronze, we combine tin and copper, melting them at about 950 degrees Celsius. Early humans could do this in a pottery furnace. Iron needs a furnace that can handle 1,538 degrees Celsius—way too hot for a pottery furnace. A big advantage with iron was that we only need one metal, which is much easier to get than copper or tin. Iron smelting technology gradually spread from Anatolia and Mesopotamia across Eurasia. Several major states in the Eastern Mediterranean began to collapse around 1200 BCE, the Late Bronze Age. Egyptian, Greek, and Hittite cultures all faced a crisis. A number of different factors caused this collapse, including earthquakes, droughts, and invasion by a mysterious group known as “Sea Peoples.” The introduction of iron technology, combined with this collapse, rapidly changed the ancient world into something that began to look a lot less ancient. In the wake of ecological catastrophe and invasion, iron reshaped regional power dynamics, trade networks, natural environments, and human social orders from the Mediterranean to China. It was during this time that we saw the rise of major empires such as the Assyrians, Babylonians, Persians, and Greeks. With the collapse of the Bronze Age and the beginning of the Iron Age, there was a change in agriculture which even led to many wars and invasions. The farming tools made from iron made agriculture easier and allowed farmers to use tougher soil and grow more crops. Iron became an important part of factories and machinery and powered the onset of the industrial revolution.
The Classical Era
The Classical Era refers to the period between the first written histories, roughly 500 BC, to the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 500 AD. Over the course of this period, Greek and Latin writing skyrocketed, developing the basis for modern Western philosophy and political thought. The major religion of Christianity was also founded in this era, expanding to become the strongest religion in the West. In this way, the Classical Era was the origin of Western civilization. Greece then Rome became the dominant cultural and imperial powers in the Mediterranean region. Other parts of the world also saw a significant change from the Iron Age. In China, the belief systems of Confucianism and Legalism developed. The Qin Dynasty, for which China may have gotten its name in the West, rose to rule over much of the north of that country, while it was followed by the longer-lasting Han Dynasty. The Classical Period was a time of great change in the world. The focus of life was changing from the country to the city, many new machines were invented, people began to believe that they should be able to make life choices for themselves and that ideas, thoughts and education were important. The American and French Revolutions both took place during this period. The Church and the monarchies (Kings and Queens) both lost power and a new group of people - the middle class - began to enjoy music and art. During the Classical Period, which is known as the Age of Enlightenment in world history, schools and Universities were established, the first encyclopedias and dictionaries were published. The piano was invented and became popular. The first concert halls were also built in the Classical Period. The art and music of this time period reflect these new and exciting ideas.
Ancient Greece
The Classical Period in Greece spanned most of the 4th and 5th centuries BCE., almost 200 years; it began right around the start of the conflict with Persia and ended with the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BCE. The Classical Period is specifically the period between the Archaic and Hellenistic Periods in Ancient Greece. Classical Greece was marked by continuous conflict, artistic revolution, the birth of Greek philosophy, advancements in science and warfare, and the advent of Athenian democracy. This period produced outstanding cultural and scientific achievements. The city of Athens introduced to the world a direct Democracy political system later adopted and adjusted by western governments like Great Britain, France, and the USA a thousand years later. The logical approach centered on the concept of logos which initiated a continuous process of exploring and explaining the world. Democracy and Reason of classical Greece became the catalysts of western culture, the foundations of its advancement as demonstrated early in the subsequent Hellenistic Age, and its successor the Roman Empire that based its values on the same principles. The philosophers of Classical Greece have dominated thought for thousands of years, and have remained relevant to our day. The teachings of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle among others are reference points of countless western thinkers in the last two thousand years. Hippocrates became the “Father of modern medicine”, and the Hippocratic Oath is still used by physicians today. The literary masterpieces of Sophocles, Aeschylus, Euripides, and the comedies of Aristophanes set the basis for European theater and until today, they appear in the repertoires of great theatre ensembles. In the ancient world, Greece was not a unified country. Rather, it was made up of different territories called city-states. A city-state has the size and characteristics of a city, but acts as though it is its own country. Greek city-states created their own laws and societal structures. They even went to war against each other sometimes. Of all the ancient Greek city-states, no two were more powerful or famous than Athens and Sparta, which were both located on the Greek peninsula. Macedonia, situated in northern Greece, during the mid-fourth century BC., became a challenging and intimidating power under Philip II (r. 360/359–336 BC.). Philip’s military and political achievements paved the way for the conquests of his son, Alexander the Great (r. 336–323 BC.). Alexander the Great invaded Asia in 334 BC with 30,000 soldiers from all Greece, except for the Spartans who denied following the expedition due to religious beliefs. Before dying at the age of 33 of malarial fever, Alexander the Great had conquered the entire Persian Empire, Egypt, Mesopotamia, modern Afghanistan and some parts of India. After the death of Alexander the Great, the large Macedonian Empire that expanded from Greece to India were torn into pieces. New monarchies made their appearance in this period that is called the Hellenistic period but they did not last for long. The concept of polis had disappeared and states of larger size appeared. However, in these states that were spread in all eastern world, the Greek language remained the official language in trade, administration, and literature. The history of Ancient Greece is now entering a new stage: the Hellenistic and Roman period.
Persian Empire
The first Persian Empire, founded by Cyrus the Great around 550 B.C., became one of the largest empires in history, stretching from Europe’s Balkan Peninsula in the West to India’s Indus Valley in the East. This Iron Age dynasty, sometimes called the Achaemenid Empire, was a global hub of culture, religion, science, art and technology for more than 200 years before it fell to the invading armies of Alexander the Great. The first Persian Empire under Cyrus the Great soon became the world’s first superpower. It united under one government three important sites of early human civilization in the ancient world: Mesopotamia, Egypt’s Nile Valley and India’s Indus Valley. Cyrus the Great is immortalized in the Cyrus Cylinder, a clay cylinder inscribed in 539 B.C. with the story of how he conquered Babylon from King Nabonidus, bringing an end to the Neo-Babylonian empire. Darius the Great, the fourth king of the Achaemenid Empire, ruled over the Persian Empire when it was at its largest, stretching from The Caucasus and West Asia to what was then Macedonia (today’s Balkans), the Black Sea, Central Asia and even into Africa including parts of Libya and Egypt. He unified the empire through introducing standard currency and weights and measures; making Aramaic the official language and building roads. At its height under Darius the Great, the Persian Empire stretched from Europe’s Balkan Peninsula—in parts of what is present day Bulgaria, Romania and Ukraine—to the Indus River Valley in northwest India and south to Egypt. The Persians were the first people to establish regular routes of communication between three continents—Africa, Asia and Europe. They built many new roads and developed the world’s first postal service. The ancient Persians of the Achaemenid Empire created art in many forms, including metalwork, rock carvings, weaving and architecture. As the Persian Empire expanded to encompass other artistic centers of early civilization, a new style was formed with influences from these sources. The history of carpet weaving in Persia dates back to the nomadic tribes. The ancient Greeks prized the artistry of these hand-woven rugs—famous for their elaborate design and bright colors. Today, most Persian rugs are made of wool, silk and cotton. The ancient Persian capital city of Persepolis, situated in southern Iran, ranks among the world’s greatest archeological sites. It was named a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1979. The Achaemenid dynasty finally fell to the invading armies of Alexander the Great of Macedon in 330 B.C. Subsequent rulers sought to restore the Persian Empire to its Achaemenian boundaries, though the empire never quite regained the enormous size it had achieved under Cyrus the Great.
Ancient Rome
After Alexander’s death in 323 BC, the Hellenistic empire broke down into three competing kingdoms that continued to fight one another for territory and power. Over time, the incessant warfare weakened these kingdoms heavily, creating the opportunity for a new regional power to sweep in. This came in the shape of Rome – a small city-state in central Italy which had established itself as a Republic two centuries earlier, after its people had overthrown a tyrannical monarchy. After a series of military successes against its neighbouring rivals, Rome had become the dominant power in the Italian peninsula, and by the third century BC was challenging Carthage – the other major force in the Western Mediterranean – and the Hellenistic Kingdoms in the East. Over the next two centuries, the Roman Republic grew from strength to strength, gradually conquering territory across Europe, North Africa and the Middle East. Greek communities came under Roman rule on a piecemeal basis, and as they did, the city of Rome became flooded with Greek ideas, art and literature. Philosophical ideas that had originated in Athens were soon being discussed all over the Roman world. A form of Stoicism was adopted as the main philosophical school of the Romans, but Epicureanism was also very popular amongst the upper middle classes. Some Romans, however, preferred to draw upon and combine ideas from the various Greek schools of philosophical thought – a system of philosophy we now refer to as “eclecticism”. The most famous of the Roman Eclectics was Marcus Tullius Cicero, a lawyer-politician who rose to the highest political office in Rome. Cicero was a staunch defender of the Roman Republic. Like many other Romans, he believed that Rome’s success was built upon its mixed constitution – a form of government which combined elements of monarchy, aristocracy and democracy. The Roman consuls who were elected annually were its monarchs, the Roman Senate were its aristocracy, and the people of Rome were its democracy. According to Cicero it was the delicate system of checks and balances that existed between these three parts of the Roman government that kept the powers of individuals in check, and provided the stability upon which Rome’s military successes were forged. Cicero’s beloved Roman Republic was not, however, built to last. The demands of defending, policing and extending a large overseas empire stretched the Roman constitution to its limits, and the Roman people ended up giving more and more power to individual military commanders. In 48 BC the military general, Julius Caesar seized control of the city and installed himself as dictator, effectively bringing the Republic to an end. After his assassination in 44 BC by a group of senators, a long period of civil war ensued, and in 27 BC Caesar’s great-nephew and appointed heir, Augustus established himself as the first emperor of Rome. Under Augustus and his successors, Rome continued to expand its territory. But from the late 2nd century AD onwards, plagues, natural disasters, famines and invasions by “barbarian” tribes gradually brought the empire to its knees. In 285 AD the empire was divided into an eastern and western region which were governed separately. The western half of the empire, including Hispania, Gaul, and Italy, eventually broke into independent kingdoms in the fifth century; the eastern empire, governed from Constantinople, is referred to as the Byzantine Empire after AD 476, the traditional date for the "fall of Rome" and subsequent onset of the Middle Ages. Gradually, Rome lost its place as the capital of the empire and power shifted eastwards to the new capital of Byzantium (modern day Istanbul). During the 5th century AD, continued invasions from Germanic tribes caused the Western Empire to steadily disintegrate before finally falling in 476 AD.
Byzantine Empire
The Byzantine Empire was a vast and powerful civilization with origins that can be traced to A.D. 330, when the Roman emperor Constantine I dedicated a “New Rome” on the site of the ancient Greek colony of Byzantium. Though the western half of the Roman Empire crumbled and fell in A.D. 476, the eastern half survived for 1,000 more years, spawning a rich tradition of art, literature and learning and serving as a military buffer between Europe and Asia. The Byzantine Empire finally fell in 1453, after an Ottoman army stormed Constantinople during the reign of Constantine XI. The term “Byzantine” derives from Byzantium, an ancient Greek colony founded by a man named Byzas. Located on the European side of the Bosporus (the strait linking the Black Sea to the Mediterranean), the site of Byzantium was ideally located to serve as a transit and trade point between Europe and Asia. In A.D. 330, Roman Emperor Constantine I chose Byzantium as the site of a “New Rome” with an eponymous capital city, Constantinople. The Eastern Roman Empire, variously known as the Byzantine Empire or Byzantium, was able to survive for centuries after the fall of Rome. Though Byzantium was ruled by Roman law and Roman political institutions, and its official language was Latin, Greek was also widely spoken, and students received education in Greek history, literature and culture. On May 29, 1453, after an Ottoman army stormed Constantinople, Mehmed triumphantly entered the Hagia Sophia, which would soon be converted to the city’s leading mosque. The fall of Constantinople marked the end of a glorious era for the Byzantine Empire. Emperor Constantine XI died in battle that day, and the Byzantine Empire collapsed, ushering in the long reign of the Ottoman Empire.
The Middle Ages
Description for The Middle Ages
Early Modern Era
Description for Early Modern Era
Modern Era
Description for Modern Era